A fundamentally qualitative breakthrough in measuring air humidity occurred only 300 years after da Vinci's invention. The Swiss Horace Benedict de Saussure in 1783 by

Air humidity affects people's health and well-being, food shelf life, and a successful harvest, among other things.

It was in ancient China that people first started noticing the way humidity affects their environment. Over 3000 years ago, on the shores of the Yellow River, scholars of the Shang Dynasty's royal palace began to weigh bits of charcoal and handfuls of soil. They did that right after drying the material, and then again after letting it sit in the humid open air. They inscribed the results of their experiments on [tortoise shells](https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8787). The objects changed mass, indicating humidity fluctuations in the surface air. This knowledge was a great help to merchants, builders, and all agricultural workers. 

Man of many talents
Later, Europeans also started to note the importance of humidity. The first engineer that tried to create a hygrometer (an instrument that measures air humidity) was [Leonardo da Vinci](ttps://weather.com/es-ES/espana/tiempo/news/2017-12-10-higrometro-humedad-temperatura), of course.



## Man of many talents

Later, Europeans also started to note the importance of humidity. The first engineer that tried to create a hygrometer (an instrument that measures air humidity) was [Leonardo da Vinci](https://weather.com/es-ES/espana/tiempo/news/2017-12-10-higrometro-humedad-temperatura), of course.


![Da Vinci's hygrometer drawing. Source: Codex Atlanticus: https://codex-atlanticus.it/#/Detail?detail=30](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/UMlqNjhloTmQNQmRBkco/orig)  

In late 15th century, he conducted experiments to study the compression and expansion of organic matter of different weight at different humidity levels. Finally, he came up with the idea of using a scale with two pans balanced against each other. He put a piece of waterproof beeswax on one pan and a permeable cotton ball on the other. When the humidity level changed, the cotton ball absorbed moisture from the air and grew heavier, [tipping the balance](https://www.meteored.com.ar/noticias/ciencia/leonardo-da-vinci-un-genio-que-tambien-aporto-a-la-meteorologia-higrometro-anemometro-invento.html). But such a hygrometer seriously lacked precision.

## Cherchez la femme rousse
A proper breakthrough in humidity measurement was only made 300 years after da Vinci's discovery. In 1783 in Switzerland, Horace Bénédict de Saussure invented a hygrometer that used... a human hair.

What makes hair useful? It's hygroscopic. In other words, it can absorb moisture and extend when the air gets more humid. In a more dry environment, hair shrinks back to its previous state. That happens because of keratin, which is the protein prevalent in the chemical composition of hair. The superpower of keratin is that it absorbs moisture from the environment. When the air is humid, hair begins to absorb the moisture, becomes heavier, changes structure, gets wavy and curly, and [extends](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bring-science-home-hair-hygrometer/).

So what did de Saussure come up with? He created a hair tension hygrometer. Basically, he took a human hair, attached a weight to it to create tension, and connected it to a scale with a pointer. Depending on the humidity, the hair would expand or contract, and you could see the changes on the scale.


![Saussure's hair hygrometer. Source: Museo Galileo  https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/gallery/SaussureHairHygrometer.html](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/avlYSgBcvfZxqCsiYNlU/orig)  

But not all hair is equally hygroscopic. Red hair is the most hygroscopic, because it's mostly made of pheomelanin, which doesn't really protect the hair from damage, makes it highly porous, and causes it to [absorb moisture quickly](https://www.news-medical.net/health/Genetics-of-Hair-Color.aspx). The type of red hair that's the most sensitive to humidity changes is women's hair. Genetically, it's the least dense type of hair.

Of course, de Saussure and his successors didn't know such things 200 years ago. But experiments have shown that women's red hair is best suited to the purpose.

Meteorologists have been following this rule for dozens of years: if you want to create a high-quality hygrometer, cherchez la femme rousse (French for "look for a red-haired woman").

## A less poetic approach
Further on, meteorology developed in more prosaic ways. Horsehair, baleen, catgut (cattle intestines), and synthetic fiber began to be used in tension hygrometers. By the way, hair hygrometers were produced in the USSR right until its collapse, and people often used them at home. At the same time, scientists were developing condensation hygrometers. Those were used to measure relative humidity by determining the dew point, that is, the temperature at which the vapour in the atmosphere condenses into dew.

Then there were psychrometers, or two mercury thermometers with a wet and a dry bulb. Their temperature difference was used to measure the relative air humidity. Psychrometer readings provided [far more accurate information](https://www.britannica.com/science/hygrometer).

Many other types of hygrometers were invented in the 19th–20th centuries. Of course, it all culminated in the electronic hygrometer which is the most popular type of hygrometer today. 


Why did meteorologists of the past need red-headed women's hair?

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release re

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.

Earthquakes are among the most dramatic and destructive natural phenomena. They occur when energy stored in the Earth’s crust is suddenly released. This energy release results from the movement of tectonic plates, leading to seismic waves that shake the ground. Here’s an in-depth look at what causes earthquakes, how they are measured, and recent significant seismic events.
## What causes earthquakes?
Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of energy stored in the Earth’s crust. This release is typically triggered by the movement of tectonic plates along faults. These movements can be categorized into three main types of interactions:

Convergent (destructive) boundaries: When two tectonic plates collide, one plate is often forced beneath the other in a process known as subduction. This process creates immense pressure and friction, leading to powerful earthquakes. A prime example of this is the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate along the west coast of North America​ (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/gGxtcqCvqZBPABIxcwPe/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Divergent (constructive) boundaries: At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other. This separation allows magma from the mantle to rise and create new crust. Earthquakes at these boundaries are generally less intense but are still significant. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate are moving apart (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/FfHvAbfraOEDekEPNTog/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a convergent boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>

Transform boundaries (faults): At transform boundaries, plates slide horizontally past each other. The San Andreas Fault in California is a notable example. The friction here causes stress to build up until it is released in an earthquake (USGS).

<figure>

![Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/JdGpUDutYHuELzymSbis/orig)

<figcaption>
Diagram of a transform boundary. Image by domdomegg

</figcaption>
</figure>
## Measuring earthquakes
To quantify the size and impact of earthquakes, scientists use a variety of scales and instruments.

Seismographs: Instruments that combine a seismometer, a timing device, and a recording device to detect and record ground motion caused by seismic waves. Analyzing seismograph data helps determine an earthquake’s location, depth, and magnitude​.

Richter scale: Developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter, this logarithmic scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake based on the amplitude of seismic waves. Each whole number increase on the Richter scale corresponds to a tenfold increase in measured amplitude and about 31.6 times more energy release, meaning a magnitude 7.0 earthquake would be massively more impactful than a 6.0.

Moment magnitude scale (Mw): This scale provides a more accurate measure of an earthquake’s total energy release and is widely used today, especially for large, distant, or deep earthquakes.

Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale: Unlike the Richter and moment magnitude scales, which measure the energy released by an earthquake, the MMI scale measures the intensity of shaking and its effects on people, structures, and the Earth’s surface. This scale ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). The MMI Scale is qualitative and is based on observed effects rather than instrumental readings.

European macroseismic scale (EMS): Similar to the MMI scale, the EMS measures the intensity of an earthquake based on its observed effects. The EMS is used primarily in Europe and ranges from I (not felt) to XII (completely devastating). It takes into account factors such as building damage, ground effects, and human perception of the shaking​.
## Interesting earthquake data
**Frequency of earthquakes**: Approximately 500,000 detectable earthquakes occur worldwide each year. Of these, about 100,000 can be felt, and around 100 cause significant damage​ (USGS)​. This means that, on average, over 1,300 earthquakes occur daily, most of which are too small to be felt by humans​ (USGS)​​​.

**The largest recorded earthquake**: The most powerful earthquake ever recorded was the Great Chilean Earthquake on May 22, 1960, with a magnitude of 9.5. It caused extensive damage and triggered a tsunami that affected coastal areas across the Pacific Ocean.

**Deepest earthquakes**: While most earthquakes occur at depths of less than 70 kilometers (43 miles), some can occur at much greater depths. These deep-focus earthquakes are typically associated with subduction zones. The deepest recorded earthquake occurred in 2015 at a depth of 700 kilometers (435 miles) in the Bonin Islands, Japan.

Manmade earthquakes: Human activity can sometimes cause detectable seismic activity, a phenomenon known as induced seismicity. These “manmade earthquakes” tend to be minor, but not without exceptions. For example, a 1952 Mw 5.7 earthquake in Oklahoma is suspected to have been caused by deep injection of wastewater by the oil industry.
## Recent significant earthquakes
**2023 Turkey-Syria earthquake**: On February 6, 2023, an Mw 7.8 earthquake struck southern Turkey and northern Syria. This event caused massive destruction, leading to over 50,000 deaths and extensive damage to infrastructure. The economic losses were substantial, estimated at $148.8 billion in Turkey and $14.8 billion in Syria. The international community responded with a large-scale rescue operation involving over 141,000 individuals from 94 countries​.

**2023 Marrakesh-Safi earthquake**: On September 8, 2023, an Mw 6.9 earthquake struck the Marrakesh-Safi region in Morocco. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Morocco’s history, resulting in the deaths of nearly 2,960 people and significant damage to historical landmarks.

**2023 Herat earthquakes: In October 2023**, a series of earthquakes measuring Mww 6.3 each struck the Herat Province in Afghanistan. These events caused substantial damage, with the World Health Organization estimating around 1,482 fatalities and thousands more injured​.

**2024 Noto earthquake**: On January 1, 2024, an Mw 7.5 earthquake struck the Ishikawa region of Japan, causing severe shaking and damage. This earthquake resulted in 245 deaths and significant damage to buildings and infrastructure​.

## Why understanding earthquakes matters
Understanding earthquakes is crucial for several reasons:

**Insight into Earth’s interior**: Earthquakes provide valuable information about the structure and composition of the Earth’s interior. By analyzing seismic waves, scientists can infer details about the Earth’s mantle and core.

**Preparedness and mitigation**: By studying seismic activity, scientists can identify areas at high risk for earthquakes and develop building codes and safety measures to minimize damage and casualties.

**Early warning systems**: While predicting earthquakes in advance remains beyond current scientific capabilities, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds to minutes of warning before significant shaking begins. These systems use a network of seismographs to detect the initial P-waves and send warnings to affected areas. However, these systems cannot predict the exact time, location, and intensity of future earthquakes. The Earth has numerous fault lines and spreading zones where shaking could potentially begin, making precise predictions challenging. Additionally, earthquakes often trigger a cascade of secondary natural disasters, such as landslides, dam breaks, and tsunamis, which contribute to their overall destructive potential​.

Earthquakes are a natural consequence of the dynamic processes occurring within the Earth’s crust. While they can be devastating, our growing understanding of their causes and characteristics enables us to better prepare for and mitigate their impacts. Through continued research and technological advancements, we can improve our ability to predict and respond to these powerful events, enhancing safety and resilience in earthquake-prone regions around the world.


Earthquakes: Understanding the forces beneath the Earth’s surface


When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planni

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

When the ground starts to rumble, it’s too late to start preparing. Earthquakes can strike without warning, leaving destruction in their wake. However, with proper planning and preparation, we can significantly reduce the damage caused by these seismic events. Let’s explore some scientifically backed strategies to minimize earthquake damage, drawing from expert sources and government agencies.

## Building a strong foundation
The old adage “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure” couldn’t be more apt when it comes to earthquake preparedness. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) [emphasizes](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/seismic-building-codes) the importance of structural integrity in minimizing earthquake damage. For homeowners and businesses, this means:
1. Evaluating your building’s structure, especially if it’s older than current seismic design provisions in local building codes.
2. Considering retrofits to meet or exceed current building codes.
3. Paying special attention to unreinforced masonry, which is particularly vulnerable during earthquakes.

<figure>

![An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/UFmnZWLizSbuaiEcORnB/orig) 

<figcaption>
An example of earthquake retrofitting: a parking structure in Berkeley, California. Image by Alex Mead

</figcaption>
</figure>



## Securing the inside
While a strong building is crucial, what’s inside matters too. Non-structural elements can pose significant risks during an earthquake. Earthquake experts [recommend](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/how-to-protect-your-home-before-an-earthquake) several steps to secure your interior spaces:
* Anchor heavy furniture, appliances, and shelving to wall studs.
* Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
* Install flexible gas and water connections on appliances.
* Apply safety film to windows and glass doors to prevent shattering.
* Brace heavy machinery, containers, and tanks that could shift or rupture.
These measures not only protect your belongings but also reduce the risk of injury from falling objects.
## Preparing for the aftermath
Earthquake damage isn’t limited to the shaking itself. Secondary effects, like fires, can be just as devastating. The California Earthquake Authority [emphasizes](https://www.earthquakeauthority.com/blog/2020/what-should-you-do-after-an-earthquake) the importance of post-earthquake preparedness:
* Regularly check fire safety equipment, including extinguishers and water tanks.
* Assemble disaster preparedness kits with essentials like dust masks, portable chargers, and battery-powered radios.
* Train staff or family members on emergency procedures, including how to shut off gas, electricity, and water.
Did you know that after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, it was the subsequent fires that [caused](https://www.1906eqconf.org/plenarySessions.htm) about 90% of the total damage? This underscores the critical importance of fire prevention and preparedness in earthquake-prone areas.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/OlsPCfKyRotKQppzPQnu/orig)

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Image by the National Archives and Records Administration

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Community-wide efforts
Individual preparedness is crucial, but community-wide efforts can have an even broader impact. The Seismological Society of America [recommends](https://www.seismosoc.org/us-government-relations/actions-managing-earthquake-risk/) several actions for managing earthquake risk on a larger scale:
1. Developing a culture of preparedness through education and awareness programs.
2. Investing in retrofitting or replacing essential facilities like hospitals, schools, and emergency response centers.
3. Collaborating on region-wide, multi-organizational plans for earthquake response and recovery.
Japan’s nationwide earthquake early warning system, [implemented](https://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/Activities/eew.html#:~:text=The%20Japan%20Meteorological%20Agency%20(JMA),such%20as%20TV%20and%20radio) in 2007, provides a few seconds to a minute of warning before strong shaking begins, allowing people to take immediate protective actions.
## The role of technology
Advancements in technology play an increasingly important role in earthquake preparedness. While we can’t predict earthquakes with precision, early warning systems can provide crucial seconds of advance notice. Many cities and states now offer free earthquake alert apps that can give residents a brief heads-up before the shaking starts.

For instance, the [ShakeAlert system](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science/earthquake-early-warning-overview) on the U.S. West Coast can [detect](https://www.usgs.gov/news/entire-us-west-coast-now-has-access-shakealert-earthquake-early-warning) earthquakes as they begin, potentially providing valuable seconds of warning to areas farther from the epicenter. This time can be crucial for automated systems to slow trains, open firehouse doors, or initiate other protective measures.
## Innovative building technologies
Engineers and architects are continually developing new technologies to make buildings more earthquake-resistant. Some fascinating innovations include:
1. [Base isolation](https://www.taylordevices.com/base-isolation/#:~:text=A%20base%20isolation%20system%20is,an%20earthquake%20is%20reduced%20significantly.): This technique involves placing flexible pads between a building and its foundation, allowing the structure to move somewhat independently of the ground during an earthquake.
2. [Tuned mass dampers](https://engineering.purdue.edu/~ce573/Documents/Intro%20to%20Structural%20Motion%20Control_Chapter4.pdf#:~:text=A%20tuned%20mass%20damper%20(TMD),phase%20with%20the%20structural%20motion): Large weights placed at the top of tall buildings that move in the opposite direction of the building’s sway, helping to counteract the earthquake’s motion.
3. [Shape memory alloys](https://phys.org/news/2012-02-shape-memory-alloys-earthquake-resistant.html): These materials can “remember” their original shape after being deformed, potentially allowing buildings to return to their original position after an earthquake.
4. [Self-centering systems](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2020/8859881): These designs allow buildings to rock during an earthquake and then return to their original position, minimizing structural damage.

<figure>

![Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/CqofyeijfVJrZUTDdmnJ/orig)  

<figcaption>
Shanghai Tower tuned mass dumper. Image by: MasaneMiyaPA

</figcaption>
</figure>

## Seismic deconvolution and masking
[Seismic deconvolution](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8105-8_4#:~:text=Deconvolution%20is%20a%20general%20term,the%20seismic%20sources%20and%20receivers) removes effects that mask primary reflected events on a seismogram, such as absorption, reverberation, and ghosting. This technique helps obtain clearer seismic data, crucial for understanding geological structures and making informed decisions about building designs and retrofits.

Additionally, explainable artificial intelligence (AI) is also [being used](https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.06682) to design masks for self-supervised seismic denoising. This approach helps suppress noise in seismic data without requiring prior knowledge of the noise itself, making it a fully automated denoising procedure. This technology can significantly improve the accuracy of seismic data interpretation, leading to better earthquake preparedness and response strategies.
## “Floating house”
One of the most intriguing innovations in earthquake-resistant housing comes from Japan. Air Danshin Systems Inc., a Japanese company, has developed a groundbreaking technology that allows houses to temporarily “float” above the ground during earthquakes. Here’s how Air Danshin’s [system](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) works:
* The house is built with an additional foundation, a sensor, and an air compressor.
* When the sensor detects the initial tremors of an earthquake, it sends a signal to the external air compressor.
* Within 0.5 to 1 second, the compressor activates and pumps compressed air between the earthquake-proof foundation and the base of the house.
* This action lifts the entire structure approximately 3 cm (about 1.2 inches) off the ground.
* The house remains elevated during the earthquake, effectively isolating it from ground movements.
* Once the tremors subside, the air is gradually released, and the house settles back onto its foundation.
Air Danshin [claims](https://airdanshin.co.jp/house/) that a house not in contact with the ground during an earthquake will not shake, thus preventing damage. However, this technology has limitations. The 3 cm lift height may not be sufficient for earthquakes with significant vertical movement. Additionally, the system comes with a substantial cost.

Despite these limitations, Air Danshin’s floating house technology represents an innovative approach to earthquake-resistant housing. While it may not be a complete solution to earthquake damage, it could be a valuable piece of a larger strategy for improving seismic safety.
## Economic impact and insurance
The economic toll of earthquakes can be staggering. The 1994 Northridge earthquake in California, the [second-most](https://www.californiaresidentialmitigationprogram.com/resources/blog/which-state-has-the-most-earthquakes-in-the-us#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20Alaska%20the,fact%20of%20life%20in%20Alaska) seismically-active U.S. states, [caused](https://www.conservation.ca.gov/cgs/earthquakes/northridge) an estimated $20 billion in damage. Earthquake insurance can play a crucial role in recovery, but standard homeowner’s insurance policies typically don’t cover earthquake damage.

<figure>

![The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/wXmpugRBGGinFKpBiBVm/orig)   

<figcaption>
The aftermath of the Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994. Image by Gary B. Edstrom

</figcaption>
</figure>

In California, the California Earthquake Authority (CEA) provides most residential earthquake insurance policies. [As of 2022](https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/earthquake/insurance#:~:text=Despite%20experiencing%2090%25%20of%20the,California's%20residents%20have%20earthquake%20insurance.), only about 10% of California homeowners had earthquake insurance, highlighting a significant gap in financial preparedness.

While we can’t prevent earthquakes, we can certainly mitigate their impact. By focusing on structural integrity, securing non-structural elements, preparing for aftermath scenarios, fostering community preparedness, and leveraging technology, we can significantly reduce the damage and disruption caused by seismic events.

Remember, earthquake preparedness is an ongoing process, not a one-time effort. Regular assessments, updates to your preparedness plans, and staying informed about the latest safety recommendations are all part of a comprehensive approach to minimizing earthquake damage.

As we continue to improve our understanding of seismic risks and develop new mitigation techniques, we move closer to a future where earthquakes, while still formidable natural events, no longer pose the catastrophic threat they once did.

Accurate weather forecasts, weather radar and alerts are available in the app Weather by Meteum for iOS and Android. 

Shaking things up: How to minimize earthquake damage

What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.

Ball lightning is described as shining spherical objects floating around or hovering above the ground. Most of the eye-witness accounts describe this enigmatic phenomenon as balls of fire or electricity. Despite plenty of evidence that exists, scientists are not any closer to figuring it out, and we see more and more wild speculations about these mysterious spheres of light. The internet is full of ball lightning photos believed to be real. However, most of them are manipulated images.
What causes ball lightning? What is ball lightning? This is our pick of the most mind-boggling facts about ball lightning. Let's unriddle at least some of the riddles.
 
<figure>

![Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/5278294/DYEqxHxNxcYUfxWQJKam/orig)

<figcaption>
Authentic zoomed out images of ball lightning at varying times. Source: journals.aps.org
</figcaption>

</figure>

## Amazing facts about ball lightning: 

- There is no accepted theory for what causes it or what it is made of (there are over 400 existing hypotheses that describe the nature of ball lightning). One of the theories suggests that these balls of fire consist of electrons and force-activated ions. Some scientists agree that the origin of this phenomenon is sustained by electromagnetic waves generated when the Earth's crust fractures. When the Earth's surface is shaking during an earthquake or minor shocks, these flows of electromagnetic waves soar into the air giving rise to luminescent spheres.
Due to the nature of this rare phenomenon having a lifetime of a few seconds, scientists have not succeeded in making extensive observations of these luminous spheres or in studying their properties.
- Ball lightning is common during thunderstorms. At other times, its causes have no relation to weather conditions.
- All attempts to produce ball lightning in the lab proved to be fruitless: though some motley crews of scientists could bring luminous objects to life, none of them could re-create the original nature of these objects.  The thing is ball lightning looks like plasma bubbles that can't last long in lab conditions.
- A "typical" ball lighting is the size of a cabbage head. There were rare eye-witnesses saying the hovering objects varied from several millimeters to few meters in diameter. Ball lightning can take different forms: it can be round, pear-shaped, circular, ellipsoid, to name just a few.
 
<figure>

![Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10145165/pXAOICONtFFOoVGINHwb/orig)

<figcaption>
Ball lightning that went down into the house through the chimney. Engraving, 1886 Source: wikipedia.com
</figcaption>

</figure>

- According to the research made by Alexander Grigoriev, a scientist from the city of Yaroslavl, Russia, ball lightning lasts for seconds to hours and vanishes following no particular pattern: either silently or with a blast, disappearing when striking the ground or hitting any type of conductor.

- Ball lightning emits light: sometimes dim, sometimes very intense. Ball lighting can travel at speed ranging from a few centimeters per minute to tens of meters per second.

- These floating spheres can range in color from white to yellow to green, or be even translucent.

- Information about the dangers caused by ball lightning varies enormously: while some witnesses struck by the sphere say they have not suffered any burns, others claim they saw ball lightning setting a haystack alight or even killed people.
 
- Most commonly, ball lightning zips around 1.5 meters above the ground. Still further, it can go several kilometers up from the ground.

- In 1963, ball lightning passed through a US passenger aircraft and vanished instantly not hurting anyone aboard or causing damage to the plane.

- Medveditsk ridge (Russia) located at the border of the Saratov and Volgograd regions is considered to be an anomaly site with the biggest number of ball lightning occurrences across the globe.




Ball lightning. What causes ball lightning? The most incredible facts about this phenomenon


Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change

<figure>

![/](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/13534427/LgYsefVYWlRIwWthszsN/orig)

<figcaption>
</figcaption>
</figure>

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are vital components of Earth's atmosphere that regulate the planet's temperature by trapping heat — a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. They function much like a thermal blanket, maintaining the warmth necessary to sustain life on Earth. However, human activities have significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, leading to global warming and climate change.

## The main greenhouse gases

Several types of greenhouse gases contribute to the greenhouse effect, each originating from different sources and possessing unique properties.

### Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

Carbon dioxide is the most prevalent greenhouse gas produced by human activities. It is primarily released through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas for energy and transportation. Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO₂ concentrations [have risen](https://www.carbonbrief.org/met-office-atmospheric-co2-now-hitting-50-higher-than-pre-industrial-levels/) by about 50%, increasing from approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 419 ppm as of 2021. This unprecedented rise is a significant driver of current climate change.

### Methane (CH₄)

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a [global warming potential](https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/reducing-methane-emissions/faster-further-strategy.html) more than 25 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period. It is primarily produced through agricultural activities such as livestock farming and rice cultivation, as well as from the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and emissions from oil and gas extraction. Methane concentrations [have more than doubled](https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-atmospheric-concentrations-greenhouse-gases) since pre-industrial times, contributing significantly to climate warming.

### Nitrous oxide (N₂O)

Nitrous oxide is mainly emitted from agricultural practices, especially the use of synthetic and organic fertilizers that enhance nitrogen availability in soils. It is also released during industrial processes and combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. N₂O has a global warming potential [approximately](https://www.caro.ie/knowledge-hub/general-information/science-of-climate-change/greenhouse-gases) 298 times that of CO₂ over a 100-year period, making it a significant contributor despite its lower concentration.

### Water vapor (H₂O)

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, though it is not directly emitted by human activities. Its concentration increases as the atmosphere warms because warmer air can hold more moisture. This creates a positive feedback loop: as temperatures rise due to other greenhouse gases, water vapor levels increase, which in turn amplifies the warming effect.

## How greenhouse gases work

The greenhouse effect involves the absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation by greenhouse gases, leading to the warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere.

### The basic mechanism

Solar radiation from the Sun, primarily in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation, passes through the Earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface. The Earth's surface absorbs this energy, warming up in the process, and then re-emits it as longwave infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, including back toward the surface. This process traps heat in the lower atmosphere, raising the planet's average temperature. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth's average temperature [would be](https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming/page2.php) about –18°C (0°F) instead of the current average of approximately 15°C (59°F).

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### Specific mechanisms of different greenhouse gases

Each greenhouse gas absorbs infrared radiation at specific wavelengths, contributing differently to the greenhouse effect.

* **Carbon dioxide (CO₂)** [absorbs](https://michiganstopsmartmeters.com/how-does-co2-absorb-infrared/) infrared radiation at wavelengths around 15 micrometers and can remain in the atmosphere for centuries, making it a significant long-term driver of climate change.

* **Methane (CH₄)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths near 7.66 micrometers. Although methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime — about 12 years — it is [over 80 times](https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/methane/?intent=121) more effective than CO₂ at trapping heat over a 20-year period.

* **Nitrous oxide (N₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths around 7.8 micrometers. With an atmospheric lifetime of about 114 years, it has a [long-term impact](https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/mguidry/Unnamed_Site_2/Chapter%202/Chapter2C3.html#:~:text=Nitrous%20oxide%20enhances%20the%20greenhouse,to%20destruction%20of%20stratospheric%20ozone) on warming.

* **Water vapor (H₂O)** absorbs infrared radiation across a wide range of wavelengths. Its concentration is directly related to temperature, leading to a feedback loop that amplifies warming caused by other greenhouse gases.

### The enhanced greenhouse effect

Human activities have intensified the natural greenhouse effect by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

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**Increased concentrations:** Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide have risen sharply due to activities such as fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and industrial processes. For instance, CO₂ levels [have increased](https://newatlas.com/environment/atmospheric-co2-50-percent-higher-pre-industrial-levels/) from about 280 ppm in the pre-industrial era to over 419 ppm in 2021.

**Positive feedback loops:** Warming temperatures can trigger processes that release additional greenhouse gases, creating positive feedback loops. For example, thawing permafrost in Arctic regions releases methane and CO₂ previously trapped in frozen soils, further enhancing warming.

**Climate sensitivity:** Climate sensitivity refers to the amount of global temperature increase expected from a doubling of CO₂ concentrations compared to pre-industrial levels. [Current estimates](https://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2021/08/notallmodels/) suggest a likely range of 2.5°C to 4°C, with a best estimate of around 3°C. Understanding climate sensitivity is crucial for predicting future climate impacts and informing policy decisions.

## Measuring and monitoring

Scientists use various methods to measure greenhouse gases and assess their impact on the climate. Understanding the mechanisms and impacts of greenhouse gases is essential for developing effective strategies to mitigate climate change.

**Direct atmospheric measurements:** Monitoring stations worldwide, such as the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, continuously measure atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. These measurements provide critical data on how concentrations change over time.

**Satellite observations:** Satellites equipped with spectrometers measure the Earth's energy balance and the distribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They can detect changes in outgoing longwave radiation, offering insights into how the greenhouse effect is altering.

**Ice core analysis:** By examining air bubbles trapped in ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland, scientists reconstruct past atmospheric compositions, extending back hundreds of thousands of years. This information helps contextualize current greenhouse gas levels within historical variations.

**Spectroscopy:** Spectroscopic techniques identify specific greenhouse gases by their unique absorption spectra, enabling precise measurements of atmospheric composition and the study of gas interactions with radiation.

## Kazakhstan: a case study in greenhouse gas emissions

Kazakhstan offers a compelling example of the challenges and efforts associated with greenhouse gas emissions in a developing economy.

### Emissions profile

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[In 2021](https://icapcarbonaction.com/system/files/ets_pdfs/icap-etsmap-factsheet-46.pdf), Kazakhstan's total greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 338 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalent, marking an increase from previous years. The energy sector is the largest contributor, [accounting](https://www.usaid.gov/energy/auctions-kazakhstan) for about 82% of the country's total emissions in 2015. This high percentage reflects Kazakhstan's heavy reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, for electricity generation and industrial processes.

Per capita, Kazakhstan's emissions are relatively high, [standing](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) at around 17.3 metric tons of CO₂ equivalent per person as of 2022. This ranks the country among the top emitters on a per capita basis, highlighting its energy-intensive economy.

Kazakhstan contributes [approximately](https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/edgar) 0.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it one of the top 30 emitters worldwide. While this may seem small in global terms, it is significant for a nation with a population of about 19 million.

### Climate change impacts in Kazakhstan

The effects of increased greenhouse gas emissions are already apparent in Kazakhstan.

**Rising temperatures:** Between 1941 and 2020, the average annual temperature in Kazakhstan [increased](https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-023-01122-w) by about 2°C, exceeding the global average temperature rise. This warming trend affects agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems, potentially threatening food security and livelihoods.

**Extreme weather events:** Kazakhstan has experienced an increase in extreme weather events, including droughts, floods, and heatwaves. These events have substantial social and economic impacts, damaging infrastructure and affecting public health.

**Glacial retreat and water resources:** The country's glaciers are retreating, which threatens water supplies for agriculture and human consumption in downstream regions. Reduced glacial meltwater can lead to water shortages during dry seasons.

**Desertification:** Increasing temperatures and changing precipitation patterns contribute to desertification, impacting arable land and biodiversity.

### Mitigation efforts

Kazakhstan has implemented several strategies to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change.

**Emissions trading system:** In 2021, Kazakhstan [adopted](https://icapcarbonaction.com/en/ets/kazakhstan-emissions-trading-system) a new Environmental Code that includes an emissions trading system. This market-based approach aims to incentivize emission reductions in the industrial sector by setting caps and allowing trading of emission allowances.

**Renewable energy expansion:** The country is increasing its share of renewable energy sources. [By 2021](https://www.undp.org/kazakhstan/news/reducing-temperatures-kazakhstan-takes-action-against-climate-change), Kazakhstan had over 115 renewable energy facilities in operation, including wind, solar, and hydropower plants. The government [aims](https://daryo.uz/en/2024/07/26/central-asia-advances-green-energy-with-initiatives-and-regional-cooperation) to produce 15% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2030 and 50% by 2050.

**Transition to natural gas:** Kazakhstan is transitioning from coal to natural gas for electricity generation and heating. Projects like the "[Saryarka](https://astanatimes.com/2020/01/kazakh-government-commissions-saryarka-gas-pipeline/)" gas pipeline are expanding access to natural gas, particularly in regions previously reliant on coal. This shift reduces carbon intensity and improves air quality.

**International commitments:** Kazakhstan [has pledged](https://astanatimes.com/2020/12/tokayev-announces-kazakhstans-pledge-to-reach-carbon-neutrality-by-2060/) to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 as part of its commitment to the Paris Agreement. The country submitted its updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 15% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.

**Energy efficiency initiatives:** Efforts are underway to improve energy efficiency across various sectors, including industry, transportation, and buildings. This includes adopting new technologies, enhancing regulations, and promoting public awareness to reduce energy consumption.

As global efforts to combat climate change intensify, countries like Kazakhstan will play a crucial role. Their ability to transition to cleaner energy sources and implement effective climate policies is vital in the global fight against climate change. Continued international cooperation, technological innovation, and investment in sustainable practices are essential to support these transitions.

Greenhouse gases: The invisible drivers of climate change

During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a 

During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a matter of fact, the Moon displays eight main phases. We'll dive deeper into these phases to find out why this Earth's most constant companion changes its appearance night after night.

During the course of a month, the Moon goes through several phases. The major Moon phases are the new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the third quarter. As a matter of fact, the Moon displays eight main phases. We'll dive deeper into these phases to find out why this Earth's most constant companion changes its appearance night after night.


## Understanding the phases of the Moon

Lunar phases are the shapes of the visible part of the satellite from Earth's perspective. Fun fact: the illuminated edge of the Moon's visible surface is called the limb, while the line that separates the illuminated and the shaded sections is the Moon's terminator (a word derived from the Latin "terminare", which means "to set bounds to").

As the Moon goes around the Earth, the Sun illuminates different parts of the Moon, which changes its appearance and creates lunar phases.

Examples of terminology relating to lunar phases that is commonly used by the scientific community:
* The Moon cycle, which is one full orbit by our Moon around the Earth. It takes 29.5 days.
* A Synodic month, or a Lunation, being the time between two successive new moons.
* The age of the Moon, which is the number of days since the last new moon.

![](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/aFgVIzcPdWaciFZlGEiB/orig)

## A guide to the phases of the Moon

There are 4 major phases of the Moon — the full moon, the new moon, the first and the last quarters. The 4 minor phases are waxing crescent, waxing gibbous, waning gibbous, and waning crescent. The major phases of the Moon occur about 7.4 days apart.

**New moon**

The Moon is between the Sun and the Earth. Thus, the side of the Moon facing the Earth is in shadow.

**Waxing crescent**

This phase follows the new moon, as the Moon starts to "grow". We only see the edge of the part that is gradually illuminated by the Sun.

**First quarter**

The Moon has completed 1/4 of its orbit around the Earth. Half of the Moon's surface is illuminated by the Sun.

**Waxing gibbous**

More than half of the Moon’s surface visible from Earth is illuminated.

**Full moon**

During this phase, the Earth is positioned between the Moon and the Sun, which illuminates the entire near-side of the satellite. We can enjoy the round appearance of the full moon all night long.

**Waning gibbous**

After the full moon, the illuminated part of the Moon begins to wane. During this phase, the surface of the Moon that we see from the Earth is still mostly illuminated.

**Last quarter**

The Moon looks like it is half illuminated.

**Waning crescent**

The final phase of the Moon before transitioning back into the new moon. Only a small, crescent-shaped sliver of the Moon is visible, which is diminishing in size.

![](https://avatars.mds.yandex.net/get-weather/10931474/oZYbnQGKEjDVrFluxqWQ/orig)


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